Generalization and Maintenance

Generalization and maintenance are critical components of effective behavior change programs. While teaching new skills is important, ensuring those skills transfer to different settings, people, and situations (generalization) and continue over time (maintenance) is essential for meaningful, lasting outcomes. This comprehensive guide covers strategies for promoting both generalization and maintenance in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) interventions.

Understanding Generalization

Definition and Types

Generalization refers to the transfer of learned behaviors beyond the specific conditions under which they were initially taught.

Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus generalization occurs when a behavior taught in the presence of one stimulus occurs in the presence of similar but different stimuli.

Examples:

• A child who learns to greet their teacher also greets other adults
• A client who learns to sort red blocks also sorts red cars
• A student who follows instructions from one therapist also follows instructions from others

Key Characteristics:

• Response occurs with novel stimuli
• No additional training required for transfer
• Similar stimulus features trigger the response
• May occur across people, places, or materials

Response Generalization

Response generalization occurs when learning one behavior leads to the occurrence of similar but untrained behaviors.

Examples:

• A child taught to request “cookie” spontaneously requests “milk”
• A client who learns to write letters begins attempting to write numbers
• A student taught to raise hand begins using other appropriate attention-seeking behaviors

Key Characteristics:

• Novel responses occur without direct training
• Responses serve similar functions
• Responses share topographical features
• Expands behavioral repertoire beyond taught skills

Barriers to Generalization

Several factors can impede the generalization of skills:

1. Restricted Stimulus Control: When behavior is under the control of very specific stimuli

   • Example: Only responding to one specific wording of instructions

2. Artificial Contingencies: When reinforcement in training differs significantly from natural environments

   • Example: Using edibles for compliance when natural settings provide only social reinforcement

3. Limited Training Exemplars: Teaching with too few examples or variations

   • Example: Teaching greetings with only one person in one setting

4. Lack of Functional Relevance: Skills taught without clear purpose in natural environment

   • Example: Teaching rote responses without meaningful application

5. Competing Contingencies: When natural environments reinforce different behaviors

   • Example: Peers reinforce inappropriate behavior that competes with taught skills

Understanding Maintenance

Definition and Importance

Maintenance refers to the continued performance of learned behaviors over time after formal training has ended.

Key Characteristics:

• Behavior persists without the original teaching contingencies
• Performance remains stable over extended periods
• Skills continue without direct intervention
• Behavior occurs when needed in natural context

Barriers to Maintenance

Several factors can prevent the maintenance of skills:

1. Artificial Reinforcement: Over-reliance on programmed reinforcers not available in natural settings

   • Example: Using token systems without transitioning to natural reinforcers

2. Insufficient Practice: Not enough opportunities to strengthen the behavior

   • Example: Teaching a skill but providing limited chances to use it

3. Inadequate Fluency: Skills learned to accuracy but not fluency

   • Example: Client can perform skill correctly but very slowly

4. Competing Behaviors: Easier or more reinforced behaviors that serve the same function

   • Example: Requesting attention appropriately competes with faster, problematic attention-seeking

5. Lack of Reinforcement in Natural Environment: Natural settings don’t support the new behavior

   • Example: Teaching communication skills that family members don’t recognize or reinforce

Strategies for Promoting Generalization

1. Train Sufficient Exemplars

Teaching with multiple examples and variations helps prevent restricted stimulus control.

Strategies:

• Multiple Stimulus Examples: Teach using various materials, colors, sizes

  • Example: Teaching “cup” using different types, colors, and sizes of cups

• Multiple Response Examples: Teach various forms of the same functional response

  • Example: Teaching multiple ways to request help (verbal, picture, gesture)

• Multiple Setting Examples: Practice skills in different locations

  • Example: Teaching handwashing in different bathrooms

• Multiple Person Examples: Involve different people in teaching

  • Example: Having different therapists, family members, and peers practice greetings

Implementation Tips:

• Begin with 2-3 exemplars and expand based on progress
• Systematically vary one dimension at a time initially
• Introduce natural variations rather than contrived ones
• Track performance across different exemplars
• Identify which dimensions require more exemplar training

2. Program Common Stimuli

Incorporating elements from the generalization setting into the training setting facilitates transfer.

Strategies:

• Physical Stimuli: Include materials, furniture, or objects from target environments

  • Example: Using actual cafeteria trays when teaching lunch routines

• Social Stimuli: Include people from natural environment in training

  • Example: Having classroom peers participate in social skills training

• Instructional Stimuli: Use similar instructions or cues across settings

  • Example: Using the same visual schedule format at home and school

• Temporal Stimuli: Practice at times similar to when skills will be needed

  • Example: Practicing morning routines in the morning

Implementation Tips:

• Identify the most salient stimuli in the generalization setting
• Gradually introduce more naturalistic stimuli
• Take photographs of natural environments to recreate elements
• Bring familiar elements from training into generalization settings initially
• Fade unique training stimuli as generalization develops

3. Train Loosely

Varying non-essential aspects of teaching helps prevent overly rigid responding.

Strategies:

• Varied Instructions: Use different wordings for the same request

  • Example: “Please sit down,” “Take a seat,” “It’s time to sit”

• Varied Order: Change the sequence of activities or steps

  • Example: Varying the order of questions during academic work

• Varied Settings Within Sessions: Move around during teaching

  • Example: Practicing conversation skills while walking, sitting, and standing

• Varied Materials: Use different materials for the same task

  • Example: Writing with different implements on different surfaces

Implementation Tips:

• Ensure solid performance with structured teaching before training loosely
• Identify which dimensions can vary without affecting the core skill
• Gradually introduce variability rather than all at once
• Continue to provide clear discriminative stimuli for the target behavior
• Monitor performance to ensure accuracy maintains with variability

4. Use Indiscriminable Contingencies

Making reinforcement unpredictable helps behaviors persist during generalization.

Strategies:

• Intermittent Reinforcement: Gradually move from continuous to intermittent schedules

  • Example: Reinforcing approximately 50% of correct responses instead of 100%

• Delayed Reinforcement: Gradually increase delay between behavior and reinforcement

  • Example: Providing reinforcement at the end of an activity rather than immediately

• Unpredictable Reinforcement: Vary when and how reinforcement is delivered

  • Example: Sometimes providing verbal praise, sometimes a token, sometimes a break

• Natural Reinforcement Bridging: Pair programmed reinforcers with natural ones

  • Example: Pairing social praise with token delivery, then fading tokens

Implementation Tips:

• Begin thinning reinforcement only after consistent responding
• Thin reinforcement gradually rather than abruptly
• Continue to pair artificial reinforcers with natural ones
• Teach self-monitoring to bridge reinforcement gaps
• Ensure some reinforcement continues in generalization settings

5. Program for Generalization

Explicitly plan for generalization from the beginning of intervention.

Strategies:

• Generalization Probes: Regularly test performance in non-training conditions

  • Example: Weekly checks of skills with different people or settings

• Sequential Modification: Systematically address generalization to different conditions

  • Example: First ensure generalization across materials, then settings, then people

• Mediating Strategies: Teach clients to use strategies that promote their own generalization

  • Example: Teaching self-prompting or self-management techniques

• Train to Generalize: Explicitly reinforce generalized responding

  • Example: Providing special reinforcement when skills are used in new situations

Implementation Tips:

• Include generalization goals in initial intervention planning
• Allocate specific time for generalization training
• Collect data on generalization separately from acquisition
• Involve stakeholders from generalization settings in planning
• Adjust teaching based on generalization performance

6. Train Self-Management

Teaching clients to manage their own behavior facilitates generalization across settings.

Strategies:

• Self-Monitoring: Teaching clients to observe and record their own behavior

  • Example: Using a wrist counter to track on-task behavior

• Self-Evaluation: Teaching clients to compare their performance to a standard

  • Example: Checking work against a model or rubric

• Self-Reinforcement: Teaching clients to provide their own reinforcement

  • Example: Taking a break after completing a task

• Self-Instruction: Teaching clients to give themselves verbal prompts

  • Example: Talking through problem-solving steps

Implementation Tips:

• Match self-management strategy to client’s developmental level
• Teach self-management skills explicitly
• Provide external monitoring initially, then fade
• Use visual supports to facilitate self-management
• Reinforce accurate self-management initially

Strategies for Promoting Maintenance

1. Teach to Fluency

Ensuring skills are performed accurately, quickly, and effortlessly improves maintenance.

Strategies:

• Rate-Building: Practice to increase speed while maintaining accuracy

  • Example: Timed drills for math facts or sight words

• Endurance Training: Practice for extended durations

  • Example: Gradually increasing length of independent work periods

• Stability Training: Practice under distracting conditions

  • Example: Maintaining skills with background noise or visual distractions

• Application Training: Practice using skills in functional activities

  • Example: Applying reading skills to follow a recipe

Implementation Tips:

• Establish accuracy before emphasizing speed
• Set measurable fluency goals (e.g., responses per minute)
• Use brief, frequent practice sessions
• Graph both accuracy and rate
• Test retention after breaks to ensure fluency builds maintenance

2. Teach Self-Mediated Strategies

Equipping clients with strategies they can use independently supports maintenance.

Strategies:

• Visual Supports: Teaching use of schedules, checklists, or reminders

  • Example: Using a task analysis checklist for multi-step activities

• Self-Prompting: Teaching clients to provide their own prompts

  • Example: Using mnemonic devices to remember steps

• Problem-Solving Strategies: Teaching how to handle novel situations

  • Example: Using a decision tree for social situations

• Self-Reinforcement: Teaching clients to reward their own appropriate behavior

  • Example: Self-delivering breaks after task completion

Implementation Tips:

• Match strategies to client’s abilities and preferences
• Teach strategies explicitly, not just the target skills
• Provide opportunities to practice using strategies
• Fade external prompts for strategy use
• Ensure strategies are practical in natural environments

3. Program Natural Contingencies

Shifting from artificial to natural reinforcement improves maintenance.

Strategies:

• Identify Natural Reinforcers: Determine what naturally maintains similar behaviors

  • Example: Social approval, sense of accomplishment, access to preferred activities

• Pair Artificial with Natural: Deliver programmed reinforcers alongside natural ones

  • Example: Pairing tokens with genuine praise and recognition

• Fade Artificial Reinforcers: Gradually reduce programmed reinforcement

  • Example: Moving from continuous to intermittent token delivery

• Recruit Natural Reinforcement: Teach behaviors that generate their own reinforcement

  • Example: Teaching social skills that result in positive peer interactions

Implementation Tips:

• Conduct preference assessments to identify potential natural reinforcers
• Train natural change agents to recognize and reinforce target behaviors
• Thin artificial reinforcement gradually
• Monitor response to natural contingencies
• Supplement with artificial reinforcement when natural is insufficient

4. Implement Intermittent Monitoring

Periodic check-ins after formal intervention help maintain skills.

Strategies:

• Scheduled Maintenance Checks: Plan regular follow-up sessions

  • Example: Weekly, then monthly, then quarterly check-ins

• Booster Sessions: Provide additional training if skills deteriorate

  • Example: Brief refresher sessions when accuracy drops below 80%

• Performance Feedback: Provide information about maintenance

  • Example: Sharing graphs of ongoing performance

• Maintenance Contingencies: Establish consequences for maintained performance

  • Example: Special activities when skills continue at mastery level

Implementation Tips:

• Establish clear maintenance criteria
• Schedule follow-up sessions before ending intervention
• Gradually increase time between maintenance checks
• Involve natural caregivers in monitoring
• Have plan for reintroducing intervention if needed

5. Train Diversely

Teaching skills in varied ways improves maintenance.

Strategies:

• Multiple Teaching Formats: Use different instructional approaches

  • Example: Combining discrete trial, naturalistic, and group instruction

• Varied Practice: Mix maintenance and acquisition targets

  • Example: Interspersing mastered skills with new ones

• Distributed Practice: Spread learning opportunities across time

  • Example: Brief practice sessions throughout day rather than one long session

• Cumulative Review: Regularly revisit previously mastered skills

  • Example: Weekly review of all mastered targets from the month

Implementation Tips:

• Identify which teaching formats work best for different skills
• Schedule regular review of mastered skills
• Embed practice opportunities in different activities
• Vary easy and difficult tasks to maintain motivation
• Track performance across different teaching formats

6. Involve Stakeholders

Training caregivers and other significant people improves maintenance.

Strategies:

• Caregiver Training: Teach family members to implement procedures

  • Example: Parent training in reinforcement strategies

• Peer Involvement: Include peers in intervention

  • Example: Peer-mediated social skills instruction

• Staff Training: Ensure all team members can support skills

  • Example: Training all classroom staff on prompting procedures

• Environmental Arrangement: Modify settings to support target behaviors

  • Example: Organizing materials to facilitate independence

Implementation Tips:

• Assess stakeholder abilities and resources
• Provide hands-on training with feedback
• Create simple reference materials for stakeholders
• Check implementation fidelity regularly
• Provide ongoing support and problem-solving

Assessing Generalization and Maintenance

Generalization Assessment

Systematic evaluation of skill transfer is essential for effective programming.

Assessment Strategies:

1. Probes: Testing performance under non-training conditions

   • Setting probes: Testing in different locations
   • Person probes: Testing with different people
   • Material probes: Testing with different materials
   • Instruction probes: Testing with different instructions

2. Naturalistic Observation: Observing in natural environments

   • Structured observation: Planned observation periods
   • Incidental observation: Noting spontaneous occurrences
   • Stakeholder reports: Gathering information from caregivers

3. Multiple Baseline Design: Experimental evaluation across conditions

   • Multiple baseline across settings: Evaluating transfer across locations
   • Multiple baseline across people: Evaluating transfer across instructors
   • Multiple baseline across behaviors: Evaluating response generalization

Data Collection Considerations:

• Collect generalization data before, during, and after intervention
• Use consistent measurement systems across conditions
• Compare performance in training and generalization conditions
• Document which dimensions generalize more readily
• Note spontaneous versus programmed generalization

Maintenance Assessment

Systematic evaluation of skill persistence is necessary for long-term success.

Assessment Strategies:

1. Follow-up Probes: Testing at specified intervals after intervention

   • Short-term: Days or weeks after mastery
   • Medium-term: Months after mastery
   • Long-term: 6+ months after mastery

2. Performance Standards: Comparing to established criteria

   • Absolute standards: Maintaining specific performance level
   • Relative standards: Maintaining improvement over baseline
   • Functional standards: Maintaining practical effectiveness

3. Stakeholder Reports: Gathering information from natural environment

   • Structured interviews: Specific questions about maintenance
   • Rating scales: Quantitative assessments of continued performance
   • Maintenance logs: Ongoing documentation by caregivers

Data Collection Considerations:

• Establish maintenance schedule before ending intervention
• Use same measurement system as during intervention
• Document environmental changes that might affect maintenance
• Compare performance to both baseline and mastery levels
• Note which components of complex skills maintain better

Case Examples

Case 1: Generalization of Communication Skills

Client: 5-year-old with autism learning to request items using picture cards

Generalization Challenges:

• Only requests with specific therapist
• Only uses cards from specific communication book
• Only requests during structured “requesting time”
• Doesn’t request novel items

Generalization Strategies Implemented:

1. Multiple exemplar training: Practice with different therapists, family members, and peers
2. Common stimuli: Use same picture card format across settings
3. Train loosely: Vary session structure, timing, and materials
4. Natural contingencies: Ensure requested items are immediately provided

Results:

• After 6 weeks, client requesting with 4 different people
• Successfully using different communication books and devices
• Requesting throughout the day during natural opportunities
• Began requesting previously untaught items

Case 2: Maintenance of Self-Help Skills

Client: 10-year-old with intellectual disability learning bathroom hygiene routine

Maintenance Challenges:

• Skills deteriorate without visual supports
• Requires frequent verbal prompts
• Rushes through steps when not monitored
• Inconsistent performance across settings

Maintenance Strategies Implemented:

1. Fluency training: Practice to increase speed while maintaining accuracy
2. Self-management: Taught to use checklist and self-monitoring
3. Intermittent monitoring: Scheduled periodic check-ins with fading frequency
4. Stakeholder training: Taught consistent approach across home and school

Results:

• Maintained independent performance at 90%+ accuracy
• Successfully used self-managed checklist
• Skills maintained at 3-month and 6-month follow-up
• Consistent performance across home and school settings

Case 3: Generalization and Maintenance of Social Skills

Client: 12-year-old with ADHD learning conversation skills

Challenges:

• Skills demonstrated in therapy but not with peers
• Performance deteriorates in unstructured settings
• Reverts to interrupting when excited
• Skills fade without regular practice

Strategies Implemented:

1. Train sufficient exemplars: Practice with various conversation topics and partners
2. Self-mediated strategies: Taught self-monitoring of talking time
3. Program common stimuli: Incorporated peer interests into training
4. Intermittent reinforcement: Gradually reduced external reinforcement
5. Booster sessions: Provided periodic refreshers when skills declined

Results:

• Successful conversations observed in classroom and recess
• Maintained appropriate conversation skills with 75% of peers
• Self-monitoring effectively maintained skills in excited states
• Quarterly booster sessions sufficient for maintenance after 6 months

Key Points to Remember

• Generalization and maintenance must be planned from the beginning of intervention
• Multiple exemplar training is one of the most effective generalization strategies
• Shifting from artificial to natural reinforcement is critical for maintenance
• Self-management strategies support both generalization and maintenance
• Regular assessment of generalization and maintenance is essential
• Different skills may require different generalization and maintenance strategies
• Stakeholder involvement significantly improves long-term outcomes
• Fluent performance is more likely to maintain than merely accurate performance
• Generalization across settings, people, and materials may occur at different rates
• The ultimate goal is functional, durable behavior change in natural environments